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ESV 2 Corinthians 4:4 In their case the god of this world has blinded the minds of the unbelievers, to keep them from seeing the light of the gospel of the glory of Christ, who is the image of God.
Westcott-Hort 2 Corinthians 4:4 ἐν οἷς ὁ θεὸς τοῦ αἰῶνος τούτου ἐτύφλωσεν τὰ νοήματα τῶν ἀπίστων εἰς τὸ μὴ αὐγάσαι τὸν φωτισμὸν τοῦ εὐαγγελίου τῆς δόξης τοῦ χριστοῦ, ὅς ἐστιν εἰκὼν τοῦ θεοῦ.
It seems odd that Paul would refer to Satan as "...the god of this world". Is verse 4 in reference to God?
For the past few months, my home church has been going through the apostle John's "The Revelation of Jesus Christ" during the main preaching service. A few weeks ago, I was privileged to lead an adult class immediately after one of the sermons on Revelation.
Taking a macro view of things (as I am wont to do), I encouraged that class to view the grand arc of the history of time from God's perspective. My organizing outline can be summarized with three Cs. They are:
the Cosmic war
the Cross of Christ
the Church of God
"In the beginning God." Before His creation of the material universe and before His creation of the angels, God existed as the "Great I Am." Eternally existent, God is complete in Himself, and He neither needs nor is He somehow completed by having created finite and sentient beings.
The mighty angels He brought into existence, who in the Bible are alternately called "Sons of God," "ministering spirits," "winds," "ministers and flames of fire," "holy angels," and more, were and are the first finite beings to worship and serve the living God. This was only fitting and proper, since God is infinitely worthy to be worshiped and served.
When Lucifer rebelled against God and was cast out of heaven along with perhaps a third of the angelic host who allied themselves with him, a war of cosmic proportions erupted in God's universe. This is the first C of my "three-point sermon(!)." Christians must not fail to see this aspect of the "big picture."
While theodicy is beyond the scope of my answer, I will suggest that any good theodicy has to deal somehow with God's having created sentient beings to whom He gave volition. There is something in the character of God that prompted Him to give both the celestial and terrestrial beings whom He created in His image (yes, the angels were in some sense created in His image) the ability to choose freely to worship and serve Him.
Lucifer and his cohorts chose not to fulfill their God-given privilege and responsibility of worshiping and serving YHWH and were thus cast out of heaven. Since then, Satan (Ge 3:1-5; 1 Ch 21:1; Job 1 and 2; Ze 3:1,2) and his minions have been actively opposing the purposes and plans of God through an organized campaign born of hatred for God and carried out through sin, deception, temptation, death, and destruction. Praise God, Jesus came to destroy the works of the devil (1 Jn 3:8), and His plan to do so came to fruition in a way that is not only consistent with His holy and perfect character; moreover it cannot be defeated, which brings us to the second C: the cross of Christ.
Jesus, the eternally begotten Son of the eternal God, is described in Scriptures as a lamb that was slain before the foundation/creation of the world (1 Pe 1:19,20), whose shed blood cleanses and redeems those who, unlike the devil, choose to obey the truth as it is found in the One who described Himself as the truth (Jn 14:6).
In the mind of God, the outcome of the war between the host of evil and God (and the people of God) is a fait accompli. In that sense, then, "the ruler of this world will be cast/driven out" (Jn 12:31). This casting out of Satan began in eternity past, was accomplished judicially at the cross of Christ (which by the way provides the context for John 12:31), and will be completed someday in time and space (see Re 20:3,10).
In the John 12 passage, the Greek word for "cast out" or "driven out" is ekballo, and ballo is the Greek word for "threw" or "thrown" in the Revelation 20 passage. There is therefore both a past- and a future aspect to Satan's being cast/driven/thrown out by God. Much more important of the two, in my opinion, is the casting out that occurred at the cross and subsequent resurrection, where Christ triumphed over the hosts of evil and led captivity captive, having
"made a public spectacle of them, triumphing over them by the cross" (Col 2:15).
At the cross Jesus disarmed the infernal powers and authorities. At the cross God dealt Satan a death blow, the crushing of Satan's head foretold in Ge 3:15, There is still work to be done, however, which brings us to the third C: the Church of God.
In the interim between the cross, on the one hand, and God's new heaven and new earth in which only righteousness dwells--free of sin and unrighteousness forever (Re 21:1), on the other hand, there is the Church Age. While Satan and his minions have been stripped of their armor (which is perhaps a better description of what Paul meant by his term "disarmed" in Colossians 2:15) and are thus subject to Christ and His Church in a way that could not and would not have been possible apart from the death and resurrection of Christ, they are not totally impotent.
Today, God is in the process of building His Church Universal, of which Jesus said,
" . . . and on this rock [i.e., that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of the living God] I will build my church, and the gates of Hell will not overcome it" (Mt 16:15-18).
In a sense (and covenant theologians may disagree with me on this point), the Church Age had its beginning on the day of Pentecost, and it will have its consummation at the wedding feast of the Lamb, where Christ's bride, the Church, will be united to her groom in an eternal marriage. That marriage is an "arranged" marriage, by the way, and it was arranged in eternity past by an all wise and all loving God who in love is calling out from the world that is temporarily under the influence of its god--small G--a people from every tongue and tribe who by obeying the gospel of His Son are destined for glory in heaven forever.
Remember, a god with a small G is no match for God with a capital G. The teaching of Scripture is clear: the ultimate defeat in time and space of the god of this world system (< Gk. cosmos) is assured, and the defeat of the various gods/idols he offers humanity, which are in reality no gods, is also assured. In the meantime God is building His Church one living stone at a time, until the superstructure, which is based on Christ, the chief cornerstone, is completed (1 Pe 2:4-10).
That Church--a spiritual house, a holy priesthood, a chosen people, a royal priesthood, a people belonging to God--is being called out of darkness and into God's wonderful light. Until the last living stone is finally added to the Church, God's people still have to struggle with the world system and its many idols, all of which are summed up in John's big three:
"the lust of the flesh, the lust of the eyes, and the pride of life" (1 Jn 1:15-17).
Christ's Church, however, will ultimately be victorious, and we have Jesus' word on it (Mt 16:17)!
The New Testament actually commonly refers to the devil as a prince or god of this world.
For example:
Now is the time for judgment on this world; now the prince of this world will be driven out. (NIV, John 12:31)
I will not say much more to you, for the prince of this world is coming. He has no hold over me (NIV, John 14:30)
Again, the devil took him to a very high mountain and showed him all the kingdoms of the world and their splendor. “All this I will give you,” he said, “if you will bow down and worship me.” (NIV, Matthew 4:8–9)
As for you, you were dead in your in which you used to live transgressions and sins, when you followed the ways of this world and of the ruler of the kingdom of the air, the spirit who is now at work in those who are disobedient. (NIV, Ephesians 2:2)
For our struggle is not against flesh and blood, but against the rulers, against the authorities, against the powers of this dark world and against the spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly realms. (NIV, Ephesians 6:12)
At first it might seem non-intuative to attribute so much power to the Devil, but when understanding the world as being under the power of sin and that sin being something brought into the world by his temptation of Adam and Eve, it is not so surprising or unnatural to view the world as fallen under his power.
It should read "god of the age". At the beginning of this age the adversary (satan) said to the Anointed One to fall down and worship him and he will give him all the kingdoms of this world. He seems to have the authority because he says "it has been delivered unto me". That's why this age is called the "present hurtful age".
It appears he cannot rule openly, so he asked the Anointed One to serve him so that he could rule thru him. That was at the beginning of this age, so it makes sense that he rules at the end of this age thru his own anointed one. The man of lawlessness' presence is after the working of the adversary and he will give him the rule and authority because the kingdoms of this age are delivered unto him, hence "the god of the age". The Father is called the King of the ages, not just one age.
Question Restatement: Who is the "God" of this World/Age in 2 Cor 4:4?
Short Answer: Darkness is the God of this Age, (that is: Evil).
NOTE: This answer re-examines the presuppositional "false dilemma" that this passage must refer to either God or Satan exclusively because:
Because God also "Blinds and Hardens," this text does not necessarily preclude the possibility of it referring to God.
John 12:40, NASB - “He has blinded their eyes and He hardened their heart, so that they would not see with their eyes and perceive with their heart, and be converted and I heal them.”
Exodus 10:1, NASB - Then the Lord said to Moses, “Go to Pharaoh, for I have hardened his heart and the heart of his servants, that I may perform these signs of Mine among them,
In Greek, "God, θεός" is a "divine nature" or "form" and does not denote the "Seat of Supreme Authority." "θεός" is only NOW considered to refer to "The seat of all authority," and only in Christian contexts and traditions. See θεός definition and ancient texts at Perseus.
People believed there were other gods, and it would have been natural to believe that Satan could be considered a "god"/divine, or even "Evil/Darkness."
This is not foreign to the Bible, and so does not rule out "Satan" as the "god" being referred to.
Psalm 95:3, NASB - For the Lord is a great God And a great King above all gods,
Job 1:6, NASB - Now there was a day when the sons of God came to present themselves before the Lord, and Satan also came among them.
Psalms 82:5-6, NASB - They do not know nor do they understand; They walk about in darkness; All the foundations of the earth are shaken. 6 I said, “You are gods, And all of you are sons of the Most High.
What rules out "the Most High" as the "God of this Age" is the specific qualifier, "This/τούτου” — which is no coincidence in Paul's writing — and despite other questions raised, this dispositively points to "Satan/Darkness" and certainly NOT the "Most High."
When referring to God, the phrases "Into the Ages" or "Age(s) of Ages" are used:
2 Cor. 9:9, GRK - ἡ δικαιοσύνη αὐτοῦ μένει εἰς τὸν αἰῶνα.
2 Cor. 9:9, NAS - HIS RIGHTEOUSNESS ENDURES FOREVER.
Gal. 1:5, GRK - ἡ δόξα εἰς τοὺς αἰῶνας τῶν αἰώνων, ἀμήν.
Gal. 1:5, NAS - the glory forevermore. Amen.
But References to the Temporary Divine are ALWAYS qualified with "THIS":
1 Cor. 1:20, GRK - τοῦ αἰῶνος τούτου; οὐχὶ...ὁ θεὸς
1 Cor. 1:20, NAS - of this age? Has not God
1 Cor. 2:6, GRK - ἀρχόντων τοῦ αἰῶνος τούτου, τῶν καταργουμένων
1 Cor. 2:6, NAS - rulers of this age, who are passing away;
1 Cor. 2:8, GRK - οὐδεὶς τῶν ἀρχόντων τοῦ αἰῶνος τούτου ἔγνωκεν
1 Cor. 2:8, NAS - none of the rulers of this age has understood;
2 Cor. 4:4, GRK - ὁ θεὸς τοῦ αἰῶνος τούτου ἐτύφλωσεν
2 Cor. 4:4, NAS - the god of this world has blinded
Luke 22:53, NASB - "While I was with you daily in the temple, you did not lay hands on Me; but this hour and the power of darkness are yours."
Darkness Blinds:
1 John 2:11, NASB - But the one who hates his brother is in the darkness and walks in the darkness, and does not know where he is going because the darkness has blinded his eyes.
Darkness is Lawlessness:
2 Corinthians 6:14 - Do not be bound together with unbelievers; for what partnership have righteousness and lawlessness, or what fellowship has light with darkness?
Wrestling Against the Forces and Rule/Authority of Darkness:
Ephesians 6:12 - For our struggle is not against flesh and blood, but against the rulers, against the powers, against the world forces of this darkness, against the spiritual forces of wickedness in the heavenly places.
Colossians 1:13 For He rescued us from the domain of darkness, and transferred us to the kingdom of His beloved Son,
2 Cor. 4:4 - in whose case the god of this world has blinded the minds of the unbelieving so that they might not see the light of the gospel of the glory of Christ, who is the image of God. 5 For we do not preach ourselves but Christ Jesus as Lord, and ourselves as your bond-servants for Jesus’ sake. 6 For God, who said, “Light shall shine out of darkness,” is the One who has shone in our hearts to give the Light of the knowledge of the glory of God in the face of Christ.
Darkness is a Metaphor for Evil:
Job 30:26, NASB - “When I expected good, then evil came; When I waited for light, then darkness came.
Isaiah 5:20, NASB - Woe to those who call evil good, and good evil; Who substitute darkness for light and light for darkness; Who substitute bitter for sweet and sweet for bitter!
John 3:19, NASB - This is the judgment, that the Light has come into the world, and men loved the darkness rather than the Light, for their deeds were evil.
"Satan" and "Darkness" are closely related, but still Distinct:
This one passage gets awfully close to saying that Satan has authority over darkness/evil, but inconclusive.
Acts 26:18, NASB - to open their eyes so that they may turn from darkness to light and from the dominion [authority/ἐξουσίας] of Satan to God, that they may receive forgiveness of sins and an inheritance among those who have been sanctified by faith in Me.’
These passages serve to further distinguish the "Authority of Darkness" from Satan and the other angels.
Jude 1:6, NASB - And angels who did not keep their own domain, but abandoned their proper abode, He has kept in eternal bonds under darkness for the judgment of the great day,
2 Peter 2:4, NAS - For if God did not spare angels when they sinned, but cast them into hell and committed [παρέδωκεν, subjugated/delivered them under] them to pits of darkness, reserved for judgment;
This scripture is being used to teach error. The god of this age had a direct application in the first century A.D. when the letter to the Corinthians was written.
Job 41:11,
“Who hath prevented me, that I should repay him? whatsoever is under the whole heaven is mine.” (KJV)
Deu. 4:39,
"`And thou hast known to-day, and hast turned [it] back unto thy heart, that Jehovah He [is] God, in the heavens above, and on the earth beneath -- there is none else;" (YLT)
Isa. 45:18,
" For thus saith the Lord that created the heavens; God himself that formed the earth and made it; he hath established it, he created it not in vain, he formed it to be inhabited: I am the Lord; and there is none else." (KJV)
Mark 12:32,
"And the scribe said unto him, Well, Master, thou hast said the truth: for there is one God; and there is none other but he:" (KJV)
Whenever a scripture is used to teach an idea or concept that contradicts other scriptures, then the idea derived from the previous scripture is wrong. The entire Bible agrees together, and our understanding must comport with all of the scriptures.
There is only one Creator that created the heavens and the earth and all that is therein (Col. 1:16; Eph. 3:9; Rev. 10:6). Our heavenly Father has never abdicated His rule and dominion over all the earth (Ex. 19:5; Job 41:11; Col 1:16).
Therefore, the Holy Spirit’s use of the word “god” in 2 Cor. 4:4, with a lower case “g”, indicates something or someone who is not our Creator, but some other soul or being or object.
Nowhere in the scripture, nowhere in God’s holy word does the Holy Spirit ever refer to satan, the adversary, as a “god”. The word “god” in 2 Cor. 4:4 is “theos” (Strong’s 2316), and has four possible meanings:
a god or goddess, a general name of deities or divinities
the Godhead, trinity; a)God the Father, the first person in the trinity b) Christ, the second person of the trinity, c) Holy Spirit, the third person in the trinity
spoken of the only and true God, a)refers to the things of God, b) his counsels, interests, things due to him
whatever can in any respect be likened unto God, or resemble him in any way: God’s representative or viceregent; of magistrates and judges (Source: here)
Then, reasoning from the subject or context of the verse, the word used in 2 Cor 4:4 is not referring to the Godhead (2), nor to the things of God (3), nor to something likened unto God (4) So, that leaves the first meaning…. a general name of deities or divinities.
Next, let’s examine the word “age” or “world” in verse 4. KJV often translates the Greek word “aion” or “age” as “world.” This is misleading, as it leaves out the time element indicated by “age”. An age, or an era is a time period. It incorporates the people living at the time, their living conditions, their economy, their mindsets, beliefs, earthly rulers, principalities, kingdoms, etc. that exist during a period of time. The word “world” does not necessarily mean only the physical earth on which we live.
So, the “god of this age” of 2 Cor. 4:4 above refers to a soul or being who was claiming to be a deity, and was blinding the lost, preventing them from seeing the truth of the gospel of Christ during the time period in which 2 Corinthians was written. As time is a factor in the “age”, then we need to know which age, or time period Paul referred to. We must ask, “When did Paul write the book?”
Most biblical scholars agree that 2 Corinthians was written approximately 55 – 56 A.D. So the age, or time period Paul referred to as “this age” was that age which existed during the first century A.D. We must remember the perspective of the time period of “this age”.
What being or soul was calling himself “god” in the first century A.D at the time of the writing of 2 Corinthians? We remember that the Caesars of Rome named themselves gods. The Caesar who ruled at the time of the writing of 2 Corinthians was Nero. Nero reigned from 54 A.D. to 68 A.D., and was instrumental in carrying out the wishes of the Sanhedrin counsel in Jerusalem of persecuting the Christians.
Both Nero and the Jews worked hand-in-glove for a time, before the Jews defied and angered Rome. Their concerted efforts of persecution were preventing many from accepting the gospel of Christ. Their acts of terror against the people blinded the people from the truth of the word of God, preventing their full freedom to turn to Christ, and scaring them away.
While their actions can be thought of as works of the adversary (satan), because all lies are of the devil (John 8:44), it is incorrect to conclude that satan, or the adversary, is the “god of this age” in 2 Cor 4:4.
It is mankind who gives in to the temptations offered by satan. (Gen 3:6; Josh 24:15; Rom 5:12) Satan rules only in the sense that evil men are working under their own desires and lusts. He does not force us to do evil, but Satan offers us the opportunity, and then smirks at God when we fall into the pit he dug for us. (1 Pet. 5:8) It is our free will to choose to obey our Creator, to do what is right, or to ignore Him, and do that which is evil, thereby becoming “children of disobedience”.
Look at Eph 2:1-3 carefully.
“1And you hath he quickened, who were dead in trespasses and sins; 2 Wherein in time past ye walked according to the course of this world, according to the prince of the power of the air, the spirit that now worketh in the children of disobedience: 3 Among whom also we all had our conversation in times past in the lusts of our flesh, fulfilling the desires of the flesh and of the mind; and were by nature the children of wrath, even as others.” (KJV)
The time frame is again “the course of this world” or as Young’s translates it, “the age of this world”. He references their time period again, the first century A.D. Who was the prince of the power of the air in the first century A.D?
All ages, or time periods, or eras will have evil working in the hearts of the children of disobedience. Not everyone will choose to have God reign over them (Luke 19:14). It is the children of disobedience that walked in the lusts of the flesh. Only when we are quickened, made alive in Christ do we become dead to sin (Rom 6:2, 11; Eph 2:5; Col. 2:13). It is still, and always has been our choice to walk with God, or to be children of wrath.
But, “the prince of the power of the air, the spirit that now worketh in the children of disobedience” had an immediate application to their day and time. The prince of the power of the air, or “the ruler of the authority of the air” (YLT) was that spirit of man that was operating, working evil during the first century A.D.
Confirmed by Eph. 6:12,
“because we have not the wrestling with blood and flesh, but with the principalities, with the authorities, with the world-rulers of the darkness of this age, with the spiritual things of the evil in the heavenly places;” (YLT)
From OT prophetic figurative language, “heavenly places” were the ruling nations and palaces of the rulers. The same heavenly places defined in Eph 3:9-10 as places of the principalities and rulers which were to know the “manifold wisdom of God” by the church which Christ established. (See the post at my blog, “Heaven And Earth Have Passed Away" here for more discussion.)
Eph 6:12 is not speaking of evil working in Heaven above. The ruler, or prince of the power of the air in Eph 2:2 is the same as the “world-rulers of the darkness of this age” of Eph 6:12. Principalities and authorities are men. World-rulers are men; specifically the men that ruled during the dark times of that age in the first century A.D.
We all have a spirit, and are spiritual in nature (Job 32:8; James 2:26), whether of good or evil. So, the spirit of man that then worked in the children of disobedience was not a disembodied, unseen being. It was a man who ruled, and was working evil and influencing the evil ones, the children of disobedience, in the first century A.D.
When Satan told Jesus (Matt. 4:8-9) that he would give Jesus all the kingdoms of the world, that did not mean that the Adversary ruled all the kingdoms of the world. God did not say those words; Satan said them. Satan lies!
The Holy Spirit recorded the Adversary’s words, but remember that the Adversary lies. The truth is not in him. (John 8:44). The Holy Spirit accurately recorded the words that men and Satan spoke, but that does not mean that God spoke them, or gave authority for them, or that their words were true.
John 14:30, just before His capture and crucifixion Jesus said,
“I will no more talk much with you, for the ruler of this world doth come, and in me he hath nothing;” (KJV)
Jesus did not say “the Adversary”, which Adversary the KJV renders most often as “Satan”. He said “the ruler of this world…” The world, the economy, the system in which Christ appeared and was manifested during the first century A.D. was that in which Jerusalem and Judah were governed and ruled by the old Roman empire. The Sanhedrin counsel had authority only as far as the Roman governors allowed them.
During the same conversation, as Jesus continues to instruct His disciples, he says in John 15:11,
“ and concerning judgment, because the ruler of this world hath been judged.”
Again, “the ruler of this world”, not the Adversary, but the power that ruled over the people during the first century A.D. The one who ruled was seated in Rome, and gave limited ruling authority to the governors of the ten provinces of Rome, in which Jerusalem and Judah were captives. The Sanhedrin counsel, the Sadduccees, scribes and Pharisees ruled over Jerusalem and the Jews according to their practices as far as they were allowed by Rome, but all within the governance of Rome.
It was Judas who led the officers of the chief priests and Pharisees to capture Jesus in the garden, and the officers delivered Him up to Annas, the father-in-law of Caiaphas, the chief priest of the Sanhedrin. (Matt. 26:57; Mark 14:53; Luke 22:54; John 18) Annas then had Jesus delivered into the hall of Caiaphas, who subsequently turned Him over to the Roman governor, Pilate, in his praetorium, his official residence. It was the verdict of the Sanhedrin counsel which condemned Jesus, even though Pilate said it was not a death penalty under Roman law.
So, was “the ruler of this world” referred to in the gospel of John, at the time of the crucifixion of Christ, the high priest Caiaphas, whom Jesus pronounced judgment upon (Matt. 26:64). Or, was it Pilate who tried to wash his hands of the matter, or was it Caesar who ruled over Rome, or all of them? Most probably, all of them, as they all participated in the crucifixion of Christ.
We know that anyone who does not do the will of the Father is not of the Father but of the devil. (John 8:34-47) But, they still had free will. They acted of their own accord, their own desires. God allowed them to be in power and ruling during that time for a reason, and it was all a part of God’s plan of salvation.
The ruler referred to in Paul’s writing in 2 Cor. 4:4 was that ruler in power at the time of the writing of the book… that ruler was NERO.
2 Cor. 4:4 does not refer to Satan, and does not mean that God gave Satan the rule of this earth. The idea that satan, the adversary is the god of this world creates a two-god religion and is therefore false.
Bold emphasis is mine. Scripture verses are from the KJV unless otherwise noted.
First of all, 2 Cor 4:4 does not refer to the "god of this world" but rather "god of this age". So the first thing to do is to identify of which age he is speaking.
At the time 2 Cor was written there were two overlapping ages:
the final days of the Jewish temple-centric theocracy which John called "hO KOSMOS"
the first days of the new humanity, the "Church age" that Paul was sent to dispense
One might also point out that these were the last days of the gentile being overlooked.
The "god" of the "Church age" seems to be the messiah:
NIV Titus 2:
12 It instructs us to renounce ungodliness and worldly passions, and to live sensible, upright, and godly lives in the present age, 13 as we await the blessed hope and glorious appearance of our great God and Savior, Jesus Christ.
The god of the age of the Jewish theocracy might be:
It seems to me that when Jesus speaks of the "ruler of this world/age" he is referring to the high priest. The god of this world seems to be the Satan who's influence over the Jewish theocracy by his "spirit" (the "air of the breath operating in the disobedient") is complete:
NIV 1 John 5:19 We know that we are children of God, and that the whole world is under the control of the evil one.
Though hardening of the Jewish leaders was the divine plan, the Satan seems to have been unwittingly involved:
BSB 1 Corinthians 2:
7No, we speak of the mysterious and hidden wisdom of God, which He destined for our glory before time began. 8None of the rulers of this age understood it. For if they had, they would not have crucified the Lord of glory.
So the ruler of the world is the high priest while the god of this age is the Satan whose influence over the age, now arriving at judgement is pervasive.
I do not see it as odd. Paul was speaking to converted Gentiles, not Jews, so the identification of gods and daemons is plausible; by extension, the singularisation of gods into a ‘god of this world’ would naturally be understood as referring to Satan.
The "world" often refers in the Bible to a way of thinking that is antithetical to the way God thinks eg 1 John 2:15, 16. Genesis 3 teaches us clearly that it is that old serpent, Satan, who is the arch enemy of God's ways and the well-being of mankind. Hence the god of this world is Satan who blinded our first parents and has been seeking to do the same ever since.
HTH
